By Murat Haner, Justin Pickett and Melissa Sloan
Political violence among rival partisans has been a deadly and destabilizing force throughout history and across the globe. It has claimed countless lives, deepened social divisions and even led to the collapse of democratic systems.
In recent history, political violence and its deadly consequences were seen in Italy after World War I when thousands of fascist supporters marched on Rome, the capital, threatening to overthrow the government unless Benito Mussolini was appointed prime minister. That kind of violence and its effects were also seen in 1930s Germany, where Adolf Hitler suppressed opposition and suspended civil liberties amid widespread unrest and factional violence.
Similar patterns occurred elsewhere in the decades that followed. Fascist movements used political violence and intimidation to seize or consolidate power, as seen in Spain under Francisco Franco, in Portugal under António de Oliveira Salazar and in Romania under the Iron Guard.
Today, many scholars, journalists, commentators and elected officials across the political spectrum have voiced alarm over escalating acts of violence in the United States, drawing parallels to Europe’s authoritarian past. Reports of politically motivated violence are distressingly common – ranging from mass shootings, car-ramming attacks and assaults at demonstrations to assassination attempts, kidnappings and threats targeting mayors, governors, political activists and members of Congress.
For example, threats of violence against members of Congress increased by more than 1,400%, from 902 in 2016 to an estimated 14,000 by the end of 2025, according to U.S. Capitol Police reports.
Political violence is certainly not new in American society, but current patterns differ in key ways. We found that, today, white nationalism is a key driver of support for political violence – a sign that white nationalism poses substantial danger to U.S. political stability.
In the 1970s, violence was political theater, aimed at drawing government and public attention to specific policies. Today, it’s personal and deadly, driven by a desire to annihilate.
AP Photo
Changing targets
In the 1970s, radical left-wing groups often targeted government property to send political messages.
Attacks included the anti–Vietnam War bombings carried out by the Weather Underground, as well as actions by groups such as the Symbionese Liberation Army and United Freedom Front. They struck government and corporate targets to protest imperialism, racism and economic inequality. These attacks were generally intended as statements rather than mass-casualty events, with perpetrators often issuing warnings beforehand to minimize harm.
Today, however, much of the violence is aimed directly at individuals, often with the intent to harm or kill political opponents.
These include incidents such as the 2017 shooting targeting Republican lawmakers at a congressional baseball practice, the 2022 hammer attack on Democratic House Speaker Nancy Pelosi’s husband, Paul Pelosi, and the 2025 killing of Democrat Melissa Hortman, the former speaker of the Minnesota House, and her husband in what authorities described as a politically motivated assassination.
This resurgence of political violence has prompted intense academic and journalistic scrutiny. Numerous public opinion surveys have sought to gauge Americans’ approval of, or concern about, using violence against the government or political adversaries.
Initial estimates suggested nearly 1 in 4 Americans support political violence. But later studies identified flaws in the questions used to measure support for violence. Simply asking about violence in general or the use of force leaves too much room for interpretation.
Using more sophisticated questioning techniques results in lower estimates of public support for political violence.
Understanding what drives individuals to endorse political violence is essential for developing effective strategies to prevent it. As public opinion researchers who have studied Americans’ attitudes toward ideological extremism, political polarization and counterterrorism policy, we sought to advance our understanding of the factors underlying public support for political violence in the United States.
We aimed to do this in two ways: by using more specific questioning techniques and by identifying the factors associated with increased support for violence.
Who justifies political violence?
Our study focused specifically on white nationalism – a growing movement in the U.S. – as a driver of support for violence.
We asked a national sample of 1,300 Americans how justified or unjustified it would be “to take violent action against the U.S. government” in response to a range of government actions. This approach captures both approval of the use of violence and its political motivation.
We included nonpartisan government actions such as “the government violated or took away citizens’ rights and freedoms” and “the government violated the U.S. Constitution” along with hypothetical actions reflecting right or left-wing political causes. For example, a right-wing action would be to ban all abortions while a left-wing action would be to legalize all abortions.
Analyses revealed substantial support for violence against the government in response to the nonpartisan government actions. Half of the respondents indicated that violence would be justified if the government violated citizens’ rights, and 55% supported the use of violence as a response if the U.S. government committed unlawful violence against citizens. Nearly 40% said that violence would be justified if the government censored the news.
When we examined the factors behind these attitudes, a belief in white nationalism stood out above all others. But what, precisely, is white nationalism? It is more than simply identifying as white. Indeed, white nationalism is a sentiment found among some nonwhite Americans as well.
White nationalists are concerned about the increasing diversity of the American population and want to ensure that white citizens maintain a predominant influence in the country. To them, white citizens’ social, cultural and political values are superior to those of nonwhite citizens and immigrants. The perceived need to protect and propagate these values serves as a call to action.
This ideology has motivated several recent acts of mass violence, from synagogue shootings to racially targeted attacks.
Our data revealed that a belief in white nationalism predicted support for political violence as well. In response to both nonpartisan government actions and those that would benefit left-wing causes, the stronger a person’s white nationalist sentiment, the more strongly that individual believed that violence would be justified.
Out of all the variables in our statistical models, including political views and demographic characteristics, white nationalism was the strongest predictor of support for violence in these circumstances.
It did not, however, significantly influence support for violence when the government actions would benefit right-wing causes.
Growing threat to US democracy
Most people who voice support for political violence will never commit violent acts themselves.
Yet such attitudes foster an atmosphere of tolerance, signaling that violence is acceptable and enabling its continuation. Our analyses show that these supportive attitudes are prevalent among white nationalists.
Active white nationalist groups operate in all but two U.S. states, Alaska and Vermont. Decentralized groups, such as Active Clubs, where white nationalists train and network, are also on the rise.
Many more individuals hold white nationalist sentiments without belonging to organized groups. Indeed, in our national sample, one quarter of respondents agreed with the statement “although people won’t admit it, White Americans and their culture are what made America great in the first place.”
The fact that white nationalism is gaining prominence in the U.S., combined with the association between holding white nationalist views and supporting political violence found in our study, indicates that white nationalism poses a serious threat to U.S. political stability.
Murat Haner is Assistant Professor at the School of Criminology & Criminal Justice at Arizona State University. Justin Pickett is a Professor at the School of Criminal Justice at the University at Albany, State University of New York. Melissa Sloan is a Professor in the Department of Sociology & Interdisciplinary Social Sciences at the University of South Florida.
Al says
BS right from the start. When white people show pride in our culture it’s automatically white nationalism. When black, lefties, Hispanics riot it’s just a protest. This is the kind of rhetoric that leads to conflict. The blame for everything only goes one direction, right and white all else is just over looked as it’s just them trying to express themselves. When I graduated university it was a great place to be with professors that knew things and lived thru hard times . Nowadays it seems most of these so called professors are all cut from the same know nothing activist cloth. Stating this is like trying to teach my horse to climb trees, they just look stupid and go back to eating grass.
By the way the same half dozen idiots will have some personal attack that’s only allowed on this site if the left does it.
Skibum says
Irony is alive and well. You are engaging in the very type of rhetoric that you say you are against. Sorry to have to bring a dose of reality to you, Al, but your laughable comment that “The blame for everything goes one direction”, if that is what you meant, is total nonsense!
Can’t people agree that violence, period, is wrong? It doesn’t matter, or at least it shouldn’t matter, whether it be the type of political violence directed toward the maga extremist president, or liberal democrat Minn. state legislators, or a riotous mob attack on the U.S. Capitol, or racially bigoted assaults on people of different races or ethnicities, or school mass murder of children… it doesn’t matter! It is wrong, it is against the law, and those who commit such crimes need to be put behind bars. And, by the way, NOT pardoned by an unhinged, convicted felon president who loves violence committed in his name by extremist supporters!!!
If you are unable to agree that violence happens on both sides of the political spectrum by wacked out idiots that need to be held accountable through our justice system, then you are part of the problem that allows this type of criminal behavior to continue, as long as the violent, illegal acts are committed against people you happen to disagree with, and that is NOT okay.
JimboXYZ says
How about an article on the Day Care Center frauds that are nationwide ?Racism is just the same end run of a distraction/diversion that it’s always been. Biden-Harris inflationary prosperity being exposed. DOGE probably exposed so much of what was going on under Biden. Not even prison cells to house all these frauds ? The only threat to Democracy was/is anything Biden-Harris. Crime seems to never sleep under Democrats. Screaming threat to Democracy is like what yelling Covid has become.
Who has time to suspect racism even remotely occurred with all the frauds stealing money like they are ?
The dude says
We can start with Rick Scott’s Medicare fraud…
Skibum says
Yesterday was the five year anniversary of one of the biggest frauds in our history. Guess what? The “only threat to Democracy was/is anything Biden-Harris” is yet just another maga lie spouted in support of a convicted felon president who set his insurrectionist mob of misfits upon the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, then sat there on his ass for hours upon hours watching and relishing the horror unfold while 140 federal and local law enforcement officers were beaten and pummeled with all sorts of things used as weapons!
The orange terror in the WH didn’t even flinch when told that his mob had built a gallows outside the Capitol bldg and were screaming “HANG MIKE PENCE!” Even McConnel was pleading with him over the phone to call out the National Guard, but nope, even his own daughter and other family members’ pleas fell on deaf ears until hours into the violence when he finally, halfheartedly made a public statement that the violent insurrectionists were “patriots” and their mission was accomplished and they could go home… proud I suppose in the eyes of a convict himself, who absolutely adores those who commit violent crimes as long as it is done in his name!
So much for historical fraud and criminal behavior done by thousands, right Jimbo???
And BTW… if and when actual evidence of fraudulent money laundering involving anyone including daycare providers, no matter which state they are from, has been gathered, those responsible will be arrested and I hope convicted. They will not get personal presidential pardons like all of those federally convicted felons that the pedophile protecting, convicted felon prez ordered released from federal lock-ups back into society, free to laugh and celebrate having their crimes erased simply because they were done on the felon prez’ behalf!
There was no bigger hit to American democracy than what happened at the U.S. Capitol five years ago, no matter how often fauxinfotainment nuze morons and maga mush brains try to reinvent history!
melly says
So, George Floyd, white guy? And all those white congresspeople and senators on the left never, EVER foment violence from their own lips, ever, officially, on Twitter, or on TV?
Yeah, maybe try again, folks.
Pogo says
@How many professors
… does it take to screw in a bug light to attract the local klavern?
https://www.google.com/search?q=local+klavern
Apparently, 3 will suffice — and one more to carry their soapbox.
Well, the Jets are mostly here — Sharks, where are you?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzuFqrCl_4M&list=RD1MZ2QwXbvTo&index=4
Meanwhile, pay no attention, to the ordinary monsters behind their curtains:
On with the show
https://www.google.com/search?q=richest+media+owners
Lights, camera — action
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=richest+media+owners
Skibum says
As of this month, one year in since the convicted felon president began his latest immigration purge which has, by his own administration’s admission rounded up and deported hundreds of thousands of undocumented immigrant families including babies, children and women, along with men and records showing more than 80% of the undocumented individuals had no criminal records at all! But according to the hitleresque convicted felon-in-chief and his maga sycophants who were supposed to be targeting “the worst of the worst”, instead raided schools, churches, neighborhood restaurants, Home Depot locations, and target entire families, many of whom have lived in this country, in peace, for decades.
The lies about all of these undocumented purges being important to stop crime and hold “criminals” accountable is a complete fantasy that should be in a book of fairytales. The felon-in-chief granted full pardons to 1,500 actual criminals on day 1 of his second term a year ago, and now thousands of felons who were tracked down, arrested by the FBI and charged with federal crimes that included insurrection and serious assaults on law enforcement officers roam free among us, laughing at the U.S. justice system because their violence was smiled upon and excused by a vile man who is himself an adjudicated sexual abuser and a convicted felon who has no business holding the highest office in the nation!
America would be so much better off (and safer) if ALL of the deported immigrant families were returned to the U.S. and instead the convicted felon and all of the Jan. 6 insurrectionists were expelled from the U.S.
Sherry says
@ melly. . . please post “credible evidence” for your claims. BTW. . . calling for protests is not inciting violence.